CONSTRUCTIVISM

CONSTRUCTIVISM

OBJECTIVES

On completion of the class the students will be able :

·         to define constructivism

·         to discuss the history of constructivism theory

·         to Identify the elements of constructivism

·         to explain the principles of constructive learning

·         to describe the types of constructivism

·         to explain the modern  ideas in concept formation

·         to differentiate between traditional and constructive classrooms

·         to describe the educational implications of constructivism.

·         Identify the merits and demerits of constructivism

INTRODUCTION

Constructivism is a major referent in education, although it has been understood in various ways, including as a learning theory, a philosophical stance on human knowledge, and an approach to social enquiry. Here we discuss the way in which new learning is contingent on features of the learner, the learning context and the teaching.

Constuctivism has become a widely adopted slogan. It is, inter alia,used to label qualitative approaches to research, various ways of thinking about learning and cultural reproduction, and approaches to pedagogy. Costructivism as educational theory comprises of ideas about how human learning occurs, and the factors that tend to channel learning, and the ideas about how curriculum and instruction should be designed to best respond to educational purposes, given what is understood about learning.

The constructivist perspective of nth nature of learning can be seen as a part of a long tradition in educational thought, but as its modern form has its basis how people make sense of their experiences. In human societies most of the knowledge we acquire is based on what is already part of the pool of available cultural knowledge. A primary rational for formal education then is to allow reproduction of this knowledge. The commonsense view of how schooling works is based on a folk model of learning as based on knowledge transfer, or more accurately knowledge copying from one mind to another. We have available what might be called cognitive apparatus that allow us to interpret what we see in meaning full ways, because we can call upon existing cognitive resources from which to make sense of experiences.

In the classroom, constructivist view of learning can point towards a number of different teaching practices. In the most general sense, it usually means encouraging students to use active techniques to create more knowledge and then to reflect on and talk about what they  are doing  and how their understanding is changing.

DEFINITION

Constructivism is basically a theory – based on observation and scientific study- about how people learn. It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. When we encounter something new we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experiences, may be changing what we believe, or may be discarding the new information as irrelevant. We are active creators of our knowledge. To do this we may ask questions, explore and assess what we know.

Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on our experience, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates our own “rules” and “mental models” which we use to make sense of our experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences.

             Constructivism is the idea that learning is the result of assimilation and accommodation. In this theory, learning refers to both the development of knowledge and the determination of meaning behind that knowledge. So constructivist theory states that we assimilate information. In other words, we connect new knowledge to the knowledge we already have.

             So constructivist theory says that learning happens in two ways-- through assimilation, which is when we connect new knowledge to our prior knowledge, and through accommodation, which is when we actually adjust our view of the world in order to accommodate new knowledge that has been presented to us. So in constructivism, learning is really personalized to each individual learner, because each individual person is constructing their own meaning out of new information.

HISTORY OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

            The concept of Constructivism has roots in classical antiquity, going back to Socrates dialogues with his followers, in which he asked directed questions that led his students to realize for themselves the weakness in their thinking. The Socratic dialogue is still an important tool in the way constructivist educators assess their students learning and plan new learning experiences.

            In this century, Jean Piaget and John Dewey developed theories of childhood development and education, what we now called progressive education that led to the evolution of Constructivism.

            Piaget believed that humans learned through the construction of one logical structure after another. He also concluded that the logic of children and their modes of thinking are initially entirely different from that of adult thinking.

            Dewey called for education to be grounded in real experiences. Inquiry is a key part in Constructivist learning.

Among the educators, philosophers, psychologists, and sociologists who have added new perspectives to constructivist learning theory and practice are Lev Vygotsky , Jerome Bruner, and David Ausubel .

            Vygotsky introduced the social aspect of learning into Constructivism. He defined the “zone of proximal learning”, according to which students solve their problems beyond their actual developmental level but within their level of potential development under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. 

Bruner initiated curriculum change based on the notion that learning is an active, social process in which students constructs new ideas or concepts based on their current knowledge.

Seymour Papert's  groundbreaking work in using computers to teach children has led to the widespread use of computer and information technology in constructivist environments. 

ELEMENTS  OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

1.      Students construct meaning only through active engagement: Students can't be passively involved in a constructivist classroom. Students need to be actively involved in constructing new understanding that is based on their prior knowledge and that is facilitated by the learning activities that they are engaging in

2.      Learning involves metacognition; students learn from every learning activity they are engaged in. They're also learning more about themselves and their own learning preferences or how they learn best.

3.      Reflective activity helps students construct meaning; allows students to construct that individual meaning and take ownership of their learning

4.      Learning is a social activity: It requires the use of language to communicate with others around you.

5.      Learning occurs in context: We can't construct meaning just from facts in isolation.

6.      Relevance important in establishing motivation: Relevance, or the why of learning, is important in constructivist theory. Students have to understand the relevance of what they are learning if we want it to be motivating for them.

PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

1.      It takes time to learn

2.      Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory input and constructs meaning out of it.

3.      People learn to learn as they learn

4.      The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental.

5.      Learning is a social activity.

6.      Learning involves language.

7.      One need knowledge to learn.

8.      Learning is not a passive acceptance of knowledge which exists “out there”.

9.      Motivation is a key component in learning.

According to brooks and brooks;

In constructivism, teachers should;

·         Pose problems of emerging relevance: problems identified

·         Structure learning around big ideas/ important concepts

·         Seek and value students’ point of view

·         Adapt instruction to address students’ needs, prior learning, & misconception.

·         Assess student learning in context.

TYPES OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

Constructivism is not a unitary theoretical position; rather, it is a continuum.  The assumptions that underlie this continuum vary along several dimensions and have resulted in the definition and support for multiple types of constructivism.  Typically, this continuum is divided into three broad categories: Cognitive Constructivism, Social Constructivism, and Radical Constructivism.

Cognitive Constructivism.  Cognitive constructivism represents one end, or extreme, of the constructivist continuum and is typically associated with information processing and its reliance on the component processes of cognition. This process of internalization and (re)construction of external reality is learning.  That is, learning is the process of building accurate internal models or representations that mirror or reflect external structures that exist in the “real” world. 

Radical constructivism.  Radical constructivism represents the opposite end of the constructivist continuum from cognitive constructivism. Radical constructivism embraces the three tenets, that is, that knowledge acquisition is an adaptive process that results from active cognizing by the individual learner, rendering an experientially based mind, not a mind that reflects some external reality.  In addition, there is recognizing social interactions as a source of knowledge.

Social constructivism.(vygotsky) : Social constructivism lies somewhere between the transmission of knowable reality of the cognitive constructivists, and the construction of a personal and coherent reality of the radical constructivists.  This define principles that maintain the social nature of knowledge, and the belief that knowledge is the result of social interaction and language usage, and thus is a shared, rather than an individual, experience. Truth in this case is neither the objective reality of the cognitive constructivist nor the experiential reality of the radical constructivist, but rather a socially constructed and agreed upon truth resulting from cooperation in cultural practices.

MODERN IDEAS ABOUT LEARNING OR CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT

The zone of next development; The zone of proximal development (ZPD) has been defined as:

"the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers" (Vygotsky, 1978).

One of the vygotsky’s best known ideas is the zone of proximal, or next, development (ZPD), which refer what a learner could not do unaided, but could do with support from a more knowledgeable Individual.

            Vygotsky’s point highlight two issues of relevance to teachers, that might provide the basis for two more constructivist claims:

·         Meaningful learning only takes place when teaching is pitched beyond what is currently known and understood, but within the reach of existing knowledge and understanding.

·         Different learners, although apparentl having the same starting points, may differ in how far they can reach beyond existing knowledge and understanding, to meaningfully learn new material

In other words, the ZPD is not a standard sized space around existing learning, but is an individual characteristic. It is more useful for teacher to know about an individual’s ZPD than their current state of knowledge, as learning took place in the ZPD.

Scaffolding learning

This is the principle of setting the learner a task that is currently beyond their expertise, but within their ZPD, and then providing support- modelling, guidance, hints etc, so that the leaner can achieve with support. In Vygotsky’s thinking, what is achieved first on interpersonal level can become assimilated into ZAD, become internalised so that it can then be achieved unaided. The teachers role is to offer support, and then gradually fade this as the learner masters the task, until the ZAD (and so the ZPD around it) has shifted. Students often often learn a great deal by working with and having discussion with their peers, who because of their generally similar level of development may inherently pitch their inputs within each others ZPD.

MENTAL PROCESS OF CONCEPT FORMATION

Concepts are the categorization of objects, events, or people that share common properties. By using concepts, we are able to organize complex notions into simpler, and therefore more easily usable forms. Concept formation is the process by which we learn to form classes of things, event, people, and so forth. Mental process or mental function are terms often used interchangeably for all the things that individuals can do with their minds. These include perception, memory, thinking (such as ideation, imagination, belief, reasoning, etc.), volition, and emotion. Sometimes the term cognitive function is used instead.

Concept formation occurs through:

1.      Perception: experience or learning in any form is the starting point of concept formation

2.      Abstraction: the process of observing similarities and commonness.

3.      Generalization: after making observation for a number of times forms a general idea about the common properties of some objects or events

HOW THIS THEORY DIFFER FROM TRADITIONAL IDEAS ABOUT TEACHING AND LEARNING?

Traditional classroom	Constructivist classroom
Curriculum begins with parts of the whole. Emphasizes basic skills	Curriculum emphasises big concepts. Beginning with the whole and expanding to include the parts
Strict adherence to fixed curriculum	Pursuit of student questions and interests is valued
Materials are primarily text books and workbooks	Primary source materials and manipulative materials
Learning based on repetition	Learning is interactive, building on what student already knows.
teacher disseminates information to students: students are recipients of knowledge.	Teachers have a dialogue with students, helping students construct their own knowledge.
Teachers role is directive, rooted in authority	Teachers role is interactive rooted in negotiation
Assessment is through testing, correct answers	Assessment includes student works, observation, and point of view, as well as tests. Process is as important as product
Knowledge is seen as inert	Knowledge is seen as dynamic. Ever changing with our experiences
Students work primarily alone	Students work primarily in group.

IMPLICATIONS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

·         Teachers act as facilitators, supports, guides and models of learning.

·         Promote discovery learning

·         Learning concerns adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences.

·         Learning concerns making connections between information.

·         Instruction should be built around more complex problems, not problems with clear, correct answers.

·         Context and personal knowledge have high significance.

·         Help Students establish the criteria on which their work is assessed.

·         Teachers know more and shouldn’t let students muddle around.

·         Student learning depends on background knowledge – that’s why teaching facts is so necessary (reversed).

·         Student interest and effort are more important than textbook content.

·         It is sometimes better for teachers, not students, to decide what activities are to be done.

·         Sense making and thinking are most important, not knowing content.

·         Experimentation replaces rote learning.

·         Teaching utilises both skill-based and open-ended approaches.

·         Motivation to learn is intrinsic rather than extrinsic (done for its own sake rather than for grades, test scores or rewards).

·         Learners often produce unique and personal knowledge.

·         Native beliefs are used as the starting point for further discussion, exploration and evaluation for development, rather than being discounted as ‘wrong’.

·         Learning for transfer is important.

·         Learners learn best through finding and generating their own knowledge.

·         Discovery and guided discovery learning are important.

·         Exploration and active learning are important.

·         Learning is collaborative and cooperative, not just individual.

·         Higher order thinking is significant.

·         Classrooms become multidimensional, with different activities at different levels taking place simultaneously.

MERITS AND DEMERITS OF COSTRUCTIVISM

MERITS:

·         Effective for students who learn in a hands –on environment.

·         Helps to relate information learned in the classroom to their lives

·         Caters to students prior knowledge

·         Encourages teachers to spend more time on students’ favourite topic

·         Allows teachers to focus on relevant and important information

·         Students learn social skills

·         Student support each other’s learning process, value other’s opinion and input.

DEMERITS:

·         Training for constructive teaching is extensive

·         Unreasonable for school budget

·         Teachers are unable to customize curriculum to each student as their prior knowledge vary

·         Curriculum eliminates standardized testing and grades.

·         Eliminate grade centered goals and rewards

POINTS TO PONDER

·         Students construct meaning only through active engagement.

·         Constructivism says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.

·         Learning involves metacognition.

·         Reflective activity helps students construct meaning

·         Learning is a social activity

·         Learning occurs in context

·         Relevance important in establishing motivation

·         Constructivism is based on different principles

·         Cognitive, radial, social are different types of constructivism.

·         Identifying the ZPD and scaffolding helps in effective teaching.

·         Mental processes helps in concept formation

·         Traditional class rooms are inert when compared to constructivist classrooms

·         Constructivism has many implications in education

QUESTION AND ANSWER

1.      MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION:

A)    ZPD was proposed by:

a)      Vygotsky                                  b) Piaget

c)      Kohlberg                             d) Bruner

B)    ZPD can be implemented through

a)      Mental process                         b) learner focussed learning

c) scaffolding                                   d) accommodation

C) Which theory says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of      the world?:

a)      Cognitivism                               b) behaviourism

c) structurism                                  d) constructivism

D) Which type of classroom promotes discovery learning?

       a) structural classroom                 b) humanistic classroom

       c) constructive classroom              d) traditional classroom

E) In scaffolding teacher acts as a --------------.

      a) guide                                         b) support

      c) instructor                                 c) lecturer

2. Write answers in 2 sentences.

a) Define constructivism?

b) Identify the elements of constructivism?

C) What is ZPD?

D) What is scaffolding?

E) List down some mental processes?

3. Write short answers

a) List the principles of constructivism?

b) Differentiate traditional and constructive classroom?

c) Describe the modern ideas of concept formation?

4. Write an essay on implications of constructivism in teaching and learning?

REFERENCES

1. Sivaranjan K, Ramakrishnan T. V&Mridula K(2007). English language education. Calicut: Premier offset printers.

2. www.ucdoer.ie/index.php/education-theory

3. https://www. Exploratorium.edu/education

4. www.oikos.org/radcon.htm

5.www.instructionaldesign.org/theories

6. www.thirteen .org/edonline/concepts